Baking and Finishing

Module Introduction

This chapter covers all baking and finishing processes for bakery products, as required by the Interprovincial Red Seal program. You will find the physicochemical principles, baking parameters, yield and loss calculations, applicable safety standards, as well as common exam traps. Mastering this module is essential: approximately 15 to 20% of exam questions directly cover baking and finishing.

Fundamental Principles of Baking

Heat Transfer in the Oven

Baking relies on three modes of heat transfer:

Conduction: direct heat transfer from the oven floor or pan to the product. Important for products placed directly on the hearth (country bread, baguettes).

Convection: circulation of hot air around the product. Convection (fan-assisted) ovens speed up baking and even out temperatures. Reduce the temperature by 15 to 20 °C compared to a static oven.

Radiation: infrared emission from the oven walls. Predominant in fixed-hearth ovens and tube ovens.

The internal temperature of a bakery product generally does not exceed 96 to 98 °C, because water evaporation absorbs the excess heat. The crust, however, can reach 150 to 200 °C.

Stages of Baking

14.Expansion (0 to 5 min): yeast or baking powder produces CO₂; air and water vapour expand. Volume increases rapidly. A burst of steam at the start of baking delays crust formation and allows for better expansion.

15.Starch gelatinization (60 to 80 °C): starch granules absorb water and swell. This stage sets the product's structure.

16.Protein coagulation (70 to 85 °C): gluten and egg proteins coagulate, solidifying the crumb.

17.Crust formation (100 °C and above): the surface dehydrates, sugars caramelize, and Maillard reactions produce the brown colour and aromas.

18.Internal evaporation: excess water escapes as steam. Weight loss during baking is normal (8 to 12% for bread, 5 to 8% for pastries).

Reference Temperatures

Product	Oven Temperature	Final Internal Temperature	Approximate Duration
White bread (pan)	220–230 °C	94–96 °C	30–40 min
Baguette	240–250 °C with steam	96 °C	20–25 min
Rye bread	200–210 °C	95 °C	50–60 min
Croissant	190–200 °C	90 °C	15–20 min
Sponge cake	175–185 °C	95 °C	25–35 min
Fruit pie	200–220 °C	85 °C	35–45 min
Muffin	190–200 °C	93 °C	18–25 min
Dry biscuit	160–180 °C	80 °C	10–15 min

> Exam tip: you will often be asked to choose the temperature and duration for a given product. Remember that products rich in sugar and fat bake at lower temperatures (early caramelization) and that products with high hydration (fermented doughs) require higher temperatures.

Steam Injection

Steam injection is the introduction of water vapour into the oven at the start of baking. It is essential for products like baguettes, country bread, and crispy crusts.

Effects of steam:

Delays crust formation (steam condenses on the cold surface of the product).

Improves expansion (the dough remains extensible longer).

Produces a thin, shiny, crispy crust.

Promotes regular scoring (grignage).

Practical rules:

Inject steam during the first 3 to 5 minutes.

Do not use steam for sweet products (cakes, pies): steam would prevent browning and soften the surface.

For ovens without injection, spray water into the oven or place a container of hot water inside.

Baking Calculations

Baking Weight Loss

Weight loss (or "shrinkage") is the difference between the raw dough weight and the baked product weight.

Formula:

Loss (%) = ((Raw weight − Baked weight) ÷ Raw weight) × 100

Example: an 800 g dough yields a baked loaf of 720 g.

Loss = ((800 − 720) ÷ 800) × 100 = 10%

Factors influencing loss:

Dough hydration (more hydration = more loss).

Baking temperature and duration (longer = more loss).

Product size (small products lose more proportionally).

Presence of steam (reduces loss at the start of baking).

Dough Yield

Yield is the ratio between the total weight of ingredients and the weight of the dough obtained. In baking, the dough yield (DY) is commonly used:

DY = (Total dough weight ÷ Flour weight) × 100

Example: 10 kg flour + 6 kg water + 0.2 kg salt + 0.1 kg yeast = 16.3 kg dough.

DY = (16.3 ÷ 10) × 100 = 163%

Quantity Calculation for a Given Production

If you need to produce 50 baguettes of 300 g baked, with a 10% loss:

54.Total baked weight = 50 × 300 g = 15,000 g = 15 kg.

55.Total raw weight = 15 kg ÷ (1 − 0.10) = 15 ÷ 0.90 = 16.67 kg.

56.Divide by the unit raw weight (e.g., 333 g per baguette).

> Common trap: forgetting to add baking loss in production calculations. Always convert baked weight to raw weight before dividing.

Finishing: Principles and Techniques

Definition

Finishing includes all operations performed after baking: glazing, coating, dusting, filling, assembly, and decoration. It aims to improve the appearance, flavour, shelf life, and commercial value of the product.

Glazes and Coatings

Type	Composition	Use	Application Temperature
Clear glaze (nappage)	Water, sugar, gelling agent (pectin, agar)	Fruit pies, entremets	Warm (40–50 °C)
Dark glaze (nappage)	Added colouring or purée	Red fruit pies	Warm
Royal icing	Icing sugar, egg white, lemon juice	Fine decoration, biscuits	Room temperature
Fondant glaze	Sugar, water, glucose, heated to 37–40 °C	Pastries, religieuses	35–40 °C
Chocolate glaze	Chocolate, cream, butter	Éclairs, entremets	30–32 °C (tempered)
Apricot glaze	Diluted apricot jam	Pies, pastry bases	Warm, applied with a brush

Golden rule: apply jellies and coatings to a completely cooled product, unless otherwise indicated. A glaze applied to a hot product will melt and soak in, ruining the shiny effect.

Chocolate Tempering

Tempering is the process of controlling the crystallization of cocoa butter. It is essential to obtain chocolate that is shiny, snappy, and stable.

Steps:

68.Melting: heat the chocolate to 45–50 °C (dark), 40–45 °C (milk), 38–40 °C (white).

69.Cooling: lower to 27–28 °C (dark), 26–27 °C (milk), 25–26 °C (white).

70.Rewarming: bring back up to 31–32 °C (dark), 29–30 °C (milk), 28–29 °C (white).

> Exam tip: you will often be asked for the exact tempering temperatures. Remember the sequence: high melting, low cooling, rewarming to working temperature.

Cooked Sugar

Cooked sugar is used for decorations (spun sugar, blown sugar, caramel). The stages of cooked sugar are determined by temperature:

Stage	Temperature	Cold Water Test
Thread (nappé)	103–105 °C	Thick syrup
Soft thread (petit filé)	106–110 °C	Fine, brittle thread
Firm thread (grand filé)	112–115 °C	Thicker thread
Soft ball (petit boulé)	118–120 °C	Soft ball
Firm ball (grand boulé)	121–130 °C	Firm ball
Soft crack (petit cassé)	132–143 °C	Brittle, non-sticky
Hard crack (grand cassé)	145–155 °C	Brittle, amber
Caramel	160–180 °C	Brown, caramel aroma

Syrup density calculation: sugar concentration can be measured with a refractometer (degrees Brix). A syrup at 30 °Brix contains 30 g of sugar per 100 g of solution.

Storage and Preservation of Finished Products

Typical Shelf Life

Product	Room Temperature	Refrigerated (4 °C)	Frozen (−18 °C)
Bread (hard crust)	2–3 days	5–7 days	3–6 months
Sandwich bread	5–7 days	7–10 days	3–6 months
Croissant	1–2 days	3–4 days	2–3 months
Cake with cream filling	1 day	3–4 days	1–2 months
Fruit pie	1–2 days	3–4 days	2–3 months
Dry biscuits	2–4 weeks	—	6 months

Hygiene and Food Safety Rules

Products filled with pastry cream, custard, or cream cheese must be refrigerated at 4 °C or below within 2 hours of preparation.

Never refreeze a product that has already been thawed (risk of bacterial growth).

Products made with raw eggs (royal icing, mousse) must be consumed quickly or kept refrigerated.

The Canadian Bakery Code of Practice (Canadian Food Inspection Agency) requires a HACCP plan for commercial establishments.

Oven Standards and Safety

Canadian Electrical Code, Part I

Bakery ovens are fixed electrical equipment. The Canadian Electrical Code, Part I (CSA C22.1 standard) applies to their installation.

Relevant rules:

Rule 8-200: calculation of electrical load for oven circuits. The load must be calculated based on the equipment's rated power.

Rule 26-700: installation of cooking appliances. Requires an accessible means of disconnection.

Rule 26-702: ovens must be installed on a non-combustible or protected surface.

CSA B149.1 (Natural Gas and Propane)

For gas ovens, the standard CSA B149.1 — Natural Gas and Propane Installation Code applies.

Key requirements:

Adequate ventilation of the room (combustion air supply and exhaust of combustion products).

Carbon monoxide detectors in enclosed spaces.

Connection by a certified installer.

Annual inspection of burners and ducts.

> Exam trap: you will be asked which standard applies to a gas oven. The answer is CSA B149.1, not the Electrical Code. For an electric oven, it is the Canadian Electrical Code, Part I.

Fire Safety and First Aid

Keep a Class B extinguisher (flammable liquids) and a Class C extinguisher (electrical equipment) near ovens.

Burns are the most common risk. Treat immediately: cool with lukewarm water (15–20 °C) for 15 to 20 minutes, do not apply ice directly.

Never extinguish a fryer or grease fire with water. Use a lid or a Class K extinguisher (kitchen).

Common Baking Problems and Corrections

Problem	Probable Cause	Correction
Crust too pale	Temperature too low, insufficient sugar, excessive steam	Increase temperature, reduce steam
Crust too dark	Temperature too high, excess sugar	Reduce temperature, cover the product
Surface cracks	Heat too intense, dough too dry	Add steam, reduce temperature
Collapsed product	Insufficient baking, too much yeast, thermal shock	Extend baking time, check dosage
Sticky crumb	Incomplete baking, inadequate cooling	Bake longer, cool on a rack
Thick, hard crust	Temperature too low, baking too long	Increase temperature, reduce time
Uneven browning	Hot spots in the oven, poor air circulation	Rotate pans, calibrate the oven

Traps to Avoid

110.Confusing oven temperature and internal temperature: the oven is at 220 °C, but the centre of the bread never exceeds 96–98 °C. Questions about internal temperature are common.

111.Forgetting baking loss in production calculations. Always convert baked weight to raw weight.

112.Applying a glaze to a hot product: the glaze melts and loses its shine.

113.Using steam for sweet products: steam prevents browning and softens the crust.

114.Ignoring chocolate tempering temperatures: the exact values (31–32 °C for dark) are often asked.

115.Confusing the standards: CSA B149.1 for gas, Canadian Electrical Code, Part I for electric.

116.Neglecting refrigeration of cream-based products: 4 °C or below within 2 hours.

117.Opening the oven door too early: causes thermal shock and collapse of the product.

118.Confusing the stages of cooked sugar: remember the key temperatures (soft ball 118–120 °C, hard crack 145–155 °C, caramel 160 °C+).

119.Not accounting for altitude: at high altitude, water boils at a lower temperature, which affects baking (increase temperature, reduce time).

Summary

Baking combines conduction, convection, and radiation. The internal temperature of a baked product does not exceed 96–98 °C.

Key stages: expansion, starch gelatinization (60–80 °C), protein coagulation (70–85 °C), crust formation (100 °C+).

Steam injection is reserved for crispy-crust products (breads); never for sweet products.

Baking loss is 8 to 12% for bread, 5 to 8% for pastries. Calculation: ((raw − baked) ÷ raw) × 100.

Dough yield = (total dough weight ÷ flour weight) × 100.

Glazes are applied to cold products. Chocolate tempering follows the sequence melting (45–50 °C), cooling (27–28 °C), rewarming (31–32 °C) for dark chocolate.

Cooked sugar stages range from 103 °C (thread) to 180 °C (caramel).

Storage: cream-based products in the refrigerator (4 °C) within 2 hours; freezing at −18 °C for long-term storage.

Standards: CSA B149.1 for gas ovens, Canadian Electrical Code, Part I (Rules 8-200, 26-700) for electric ovens.

Baking problems (pale crust, cracks, collapse) are corrected by adjusting temperature, steam, duration, and hydration.

Self-Assessment Questions

134.What is the maximum internal temperature of a loaf of bread at the end of baking?

135.Calculate the baking loss if 1.2 kg of dough yields 1.08 kg of baked bread.

136.Why is steam used at the start of baking?

137.What is the working temperature of tempered dark chocolate?

138.Which standard applies to the installation of a gas oven in Canada?

139.Within what time frame must a cake filled with pastry cream be refrigerated?

140.What is the cooked sugar stage at 145–155 °C?

141.What is the difference between conduction and convection in an oven?

(Answers: 1. 96–98 °C. 2. 10%. 3. To delay crust formation and improve expansion. 4. 31–32 °C. 5. CSA B149.1. 6. 2 hours. 7. Hard crack. 8. Conduction is direct transfer by contact; convection is transfer by circulation of hot air.)

Baking and Finishing