Ingredients and Raw Materials

Ingredients and Raw Materials

Introduction to the Role of Ingredients in Baking

As a certified baker, your mastery of ingredients and raw materials directly determines the quality, consistency, and safety of your products. The Red Seal exam assesses not only your ability to follow recipes, but also your scientific understanding of the chemical, physical, and biological reactions that occur in every dough. This chapter covers all the essential knowledge: types of flours, leavening agents, sugars, fats, liquids, salts, eggs, dairy products, additives, as well as storage and traceability principles compliant with Canadian standards.

Flours: The Structural Foundation

Classification of Wheat Flours

Wheat flour is the primary ingredient in baking. Its classification is based on protein (gluten) content, which determines dough strength. In Canada, classification follows the standards of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) and the Codex Alimentarius for labelling.

Bread flour contains a higher proportion of glutenins and gliadins, the two proteins that, in the presence of water and kneading, form the gluten network. This network traps the CO₂ produced by fermentation, allowing the dough to rise.

Canadian Wheat: Characteristics and Classes

Canada is a major producer of strong wheat. The main classes recognized by the Canadian Grain Commission are:

Exam rule: The ash content of flour indicates the extraction rate (flour yield from the grain). A flour at 0.45% ash is more refined than a flour at 0.80% ash. The higher the ash content, the more minerals the flour contains from the bran.

Water Absorption and Hydration Rate

A flour's water absorption is its capacity to retain water. It varies according to:

Practical formula: For a bread flour at 13% protein, typical absorption is 60 to 65% of the flour weight. For a cake flour at 8% protein, absorption is 45 to 50%.

Hydration calculation: If you use 5 kg of bread flour with 62% absorption, the initial water quantity is:

5 kg × 0.62 = 3.1 kg (or 3.1 L) of water.

Flour Temperature and Base Temperature

Flour temperature directly influences the final dough temperature. The base temperature (BT) is a constant specific to each bakery and each type of dough. It is calculated as follows:

BT = (Desired final temperature × 3) – (Water temperature + Room temperature + Flour temperature)

Example: You want a final dough temperature of 26 °C. The room is at 22 °C, the flour at 20 °C. The required water temperature is:

BT = (26 × 3) – (22 + 20) = 78 – 42 = 36 °C.

The water temperature must therefore be 36 °C. If the BT is known (for example 60 for a standard bread dough), you can calculate the water temperature:

Water temperature = BT – (Room temperature + Flour temperature).

Leavening Agents

Yeast: Biology and Usage

Baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is a living micro-organism that ferments sugars into alcohol and CO₂. Three main forms exist:

Conversion rule: 100 g fresh yeast = 50 g active dry yeast = 33 g instant yeast.

Active dry yeast must be rehydrated in warm water (35 to 38 °C) before use. Instant yeast can be added directly to the flour. The optimal fermentation temperature is 26 to 28 °C for bread dough. Above 38 °C, the yeast begins to die; below 4 °C, it goes dormant.

Factors influencing yeast activity:

Chemical Leavening Agents

Baking powder and baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) are chemical agents that produce CO₂ through an acid-base reaction.

Exam rule: If a recipe uses baking soda without sufficient acid, the final product will have a bitter taste and a yellowish colour (alkaline). If baking powder is too old, it loses its effectiveness. Test: mix 5 mL of baking powder into 125 mL of hot water; if it doesn't bubble vigorously, discard it.

Natural Fermentation (Sourdough)

Sourdough is a symbiotic culture of wild yeasts and lactic acid bacteria (mainly Lactobacillus). It produces CO₂ and organic acids (lactic acid and acetic acid) that give bread its characteristic flavour and extend its shelf life.

Sourdough hydration rate: A 100% hydration sourdough contains as much water as flour (1:1). A 60% sourdough is firmer and ferments more slowly.

Refreshment rule: To maintain an active sourdough, you must refresh it regularly by adding flour and water in a precise ratio. A typical refreshment is 1:1:1 (sourdough : flour : water) at a temperature of 24 °C, with a fermentation time of 4 to 6 hours.

Sugars and Sweeteners

Classification and Sweetness Power

Sugar (sucrose) serves several functions in baking: it sweetens, colours (Maillard reaction), retains moisture (hygroscopy), feeds yeast, and stabilizes foams (meringues).

Exam rule: Invert sugar is produced by hydrolysis of sucrose in the presence of acid and heat. It retains moisture better and prevents crystallization. It is essential in icings and creams.

Effects of Sugar on Dough

Substitution calculation: If a recipe calls for 500 g of white sugar and you use honey instead, reduce the liquid quantity by 20% of the honey weight added (honey contains about 17% water). For example, 500 g of honey replaces 500 g of sugar, but you must reduce the water by 500 × 0.17 = 85 mL.

Fats

Types and Functions

Fats contribute to the tenderness, flavour, richness, and preservation of baked goods. They shorten gluten strands (hence the term shortening), making products more crumbly.

Exam rule: Butter contains 80 to 82% fat, 16 to 18% water, and 1 to 2% milk solids. This water must be compensated for in recipes if you replace butter with shortening (which contains no water).

Substitution calculation: To replace 250 g of butter with shortening:

Creaming and Incorporation

Creaming is the method of beating butter (or margarine) with sugar until a fluffy, pale mixture is obtained. This step incorporates air, which will serve as a physical leavening agent. The ideal butter temperature for creaming is 18 to 20 °C. Above 22 °C, the butter melts and no longer retains air.

Typical creaming time: 3 to 5 minutes at medium speed. Excessive creaming (more than 8 minutes) can melt the butter and cause the cake to collapse.

Liquids

Water

Water is essential for:

Water hardness: Hard water (rich in calcium and magnesium) strengthens gluten and slows fermentation. Soft water produces softer, stickier doughs. Very alkaline water (pH > 8) weakens gluten and produces a dark crust.

Exam rule: Chlorinated water can inhibit yeast fermentation. If your establishment's water is heavily chlorinated, let it sit exposed to air for 24 hours or boil it and cool it before use.

Milk and Dairy Products

Milk provides water, lactose (fermentable sugar), proteins (casein), fats, and minerals. It improves flavour, crust colour (Maillard reaction), and tenderness.

Exam rule: Skim milk powder is often added to bread doughs at 2 to 6% of flour weight. It improves water absorption, crust colour, and nutritional value. It must be sifted with the flour to prevent lumps.

Milk substitution: If a recipe calls for 250 mL of whole milk and you only have skim milk, add 8 g of butter or shortening to compensate for the fat.

Salt

Functions of Salt in Baking

Salt (sodium chloride, NaCl) serves several critical roles:

Typical dosage: 1.5 to 2.5% of flour weight for bread. Above 3%, fermentation is strongly inhibited.

Exam rule: Salt must never come into direct contact with undiluted yeast, as it kills it through osmosis. In the direct method, dissolve the salt in the water before adding the yeast, or incorporate it into the flour.

Types of Salt

Eggs

Composition and Functions

The egg is a multifunctional ingredient. A whole egg weighs approximately 50 g (out of shell): 30 g white, 20 g yolk.

Functions of eggs:

Exam rule: The ideal temperature for whipping egg whites is 20 to 24 °C. Any trace of fat or yolk in the whites prevents stable foam formation. Adding cream of tartar (acid) stabilizes whipped egg whites.

Egg Substitution

Caution: Egg substitutes do not provide the same coagulation or foaming power. They are not suitable for meringues, custards, or products requiring strong structure.

Additives and Improvers

Enzymes and Oxidants

Bread improvers are mixtures of enzymes, oxidants, and emulsifiers added in very small quantities (0.1 to 0.5% of flour weight) to improve bread quality.

Exam rule: Azodicarbonamide (ADA) is permitted in the United States but prohibited in Canada under the Food and Drug Regulations (Title 16, Part B). Ascorbic acid is the most commonly used oxidant in Canada.

Preservatives

Preservatives extend shelf life by inhibiting the growth of moulds and bacteria.

Exam rule: Calcium propionate is the most widely used preservative in commercial bread in Canada. It is permitted by Health Canada at a maximum concentration of 0.3% of flour weight.

Storage and Traceability

Raw Material Storage Conditions

Proper ingredient storage is essential to prevent contamination, spoilage, and economic losses.

Exam rule: Flour must be stored on pallets at least 15 cm off the floor and 45 cm from walls to allow air circulation and prevent insect infestation. The FIFO (first in, first out) principle must be applied systematically.

The HACCP System and Food Safety

The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) system is mandatory for food establishments in Canada under the Safe Food for Canadians Regulations (SFCR) (SOR/2018-108). Critical control points to monitor for raw materials:

Exam rule: Wheat is a priority allergen in Canada. Cross-contamination between wheat flour and gluten-free flour must be prevented through rigorous cleaning and separate storage.

Formulation Calculations

Baker's Percentage

Baker's percentage is the standard method for expressing recipes in baking. All ingredients are expressed as a percentage of the flour weight (which is always 100%).

Formula: Ingredient percentage = (Ingredient weight ÷ Flour weight) × 100

Example of a white bread recipe:

Reverse calculation: To produce 50 kg of dough with this formula, the total percentage weight is 171%. The required flour weight is:

50 kg ÷ 1.71 = 29.24 kg of flour.

Then, each ingredient is calculated: water = 29.24 × 0.62 = 18.13 kg; salt = 29.24 × 0.02 = 0.58 kg, etc.

Dough Yield

Dough yield (or baking loss) is the difference between the raw dough weight and the baked product weight. The loss is mainly due to water evaporation.

Formula: Baking loss (%) = [(Raw dough weight – Baked product weight) ÷ Raw dough weight] × 100

Example: A baguette weighs 350 g raw and 300 g baked.

Loss = [(350 – 300) ÷ 350] × 100 = 14.3%.

Exam rule: A typical baking loss is 10 to 15% for bread, 5 to 8% for cakes (less evaporation due to sugar and fats).

Pitfalls to Avoid

Summary

Mastering these principles will allow you not only to pass the Red Seal exam, but also to quickly diagnose production problems and adjust your formulations with precision in your daily professional practice.