Dough Preparation and Mixing

Module Introduction

This chapter covers the full range of theoretical and practical knowledge related to dough preparation and mixing, as required by the Interprovincial Red Seal program for the baker-pastry chef trade. You will find the scientific principles, standardized procedures, formula calculations, mixing parameters, and applicable Canadian standards. Mastering this content is essential for passing the written exam and for practising the trade competently.

Fundamental Principles of Dough Formation

The Structure of Gluten

Gluten is the protein complex formed by gliadin and glutenin, two insoluble proteins found in wheat. When flour is hydrated and subjected to mechanical work (kneading), these proteins hydrate, unfold, and assemble into a three-dimensional elastic and extensible network.

Gliadin provides extensibility (the ability to stretch without breaking).

Glutenin provides elasticity (the ability to return to its original shape).

The optimal ratio between these two proteins varies depending on the type of product:

Country bread (pain de campagne): balanced ratio, moderate extensibility.

Pan bread (pain de mie): higher glutenin for better structure.

Croissant: high extensibility to allow lamination.

Hydration and Its Role

Hydration (or absorption rate) is the percentage of water relative to the weight of flour. It is calculated as follows:

Hydration (%) = (weight of water ÷ weight of flour) × 100

Example: 650 g of water for 1,000 g of flour gives a hydration of 65%.

Dough Type	Typical Hydration (%)	Characteristic
Baguette dough	62 – 65	Firm, easy to shape
Country bread dough	65 – 70	Soft, extensible
Ciabatta dough	75 – 85	Very sticky, airy
Brioche dough	50 – 55 (plus fats)	Rich, soft

Golden rule: higher hydration produces a more open crumb but a dough that is harder to handle. High-protein flour (12 – 14%) absorbs more water than low-protein flour (8 – 10%).

Base Temperature (ΔT)

The dough temperature at the end of kneading must be precisely controlled. For most fermented doughs, the target temperature is 24 – 26 °C. For laminated yeasted doughs (croissants), it should be 22 – 24 °C to avoid activating the yeast too quickly during lamination.

The mixing water temperature is calculated using the base temperature formula:

Water temperature = (Base temperature × 4) − (Flour temperature + Room temperature + Friction temperature + Previous dough temperature)

Where:

Base temperature: a constant specific to each bakery (often 60 – 64 °C).

Friction temperature: the temperature rise due to kneading (2 – 8 °C depending on speed and duration).

Calculation example:

Base temperature: 62 °C

Flour: 20 °C

Room: 22 °C

Friction: 6 °C

Previous dough: 24 °C

Water temperature = (62 × 4) − (20 + 22 + 6 + 24) = 248 − 72 = 176 °C — an impossible result, indicating an error in the values. In practice, the base temperature is adjusted to obtain a realistic result (generally between 0 and 30 °C). Recalculate with a base of 30 °C: (30 × 4) − 72 = 48 °C, which is plausible.

Exam tip: if the calculated temperature is negative, use ice water or ice cubes. If it is too high, use cold water or reduce friction.

Mixing Methods

The Direct Method (or Straight Dough Method)

The direct method consists of mixing all ingredients in a single operation. It is the fastest and most common method for everyday breads.

Procedure:

40.Dissolve the yeast in a portion of the water (at 30 – 35 °C maximum).

41.Add the flour, salt, sugar, and fats.

42.Knead until a smooth and elastic dough is obtained.

43.Allow to ferment.

Advantages: speed, simplicity, less equipment.

Disadvantages: less flavour development, reduced shelf life.

The Poolish Method

Poolish is a liquid pre-ferment made of flour, water, and yeast in equal proportions (100% hydration). It ferments for 12 to 16 hours at room temperature or 24 hours in the refrigerator.

Typical formula:

Flour: 500 g

Water: 500 g

Fresh yeast: 1 – 2 g

Procedure:

53.Mix the poolish ingredients and let ferment covered.

54.The next day, add the remaining flour, water, and salt, then knead.

55.Fermentation and shaping.

Effect: development of complex flavours (lactic and acetic acids), better shelf life, more open crumb.

The Fermented Dough Method (Old Dough)

Fermented dough (or old dough) is a piece of bread dough kept from a previous batch, fermented slowly in the cold. It is incorporated into the new dough at a rate of 20 to 40% of the flour weight.

Advantages: consistency, flavour, better mouthfeel.

Disadvantage: requires rigorous planning.

The Natural Sourdough Method

Natural sourdough is a ferment made of flour and water, without commercial yeast, containing a symbiotic flora of lactic acid bacteria and wild yeasts (Saccharomyces exiguus, Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis).

Maintenance: refreshed regularly (every 8 – 12 hours at room temperature, or weekly in the refrigerator) with a refreshment ratio of 1:1:1 (starter: flour: water).

Exam point: natural sourdough produces lactic acid (mild flavour) and acetic acid (tangy flavour). A young, liquid starter favours lactic acid; an old, firm starter favours acetic acid.

The Stages of Kneading

Kneading occurs in several distinct stages, identifiable by the appearance and temperature of the dough:

Stage	Approximate Duration	Observable Characteristics
1. Hydration	1 – 3 min	Heterogeneous mixture, flour not absorbed
2. Development	4 – 8 min	Dough pulls away from the bowl, begins to soften
3. Finish (final point)	2 – 4 min	Smooth, elastic, non-sticky dough; positive windowpane test
4. Over-kneading	beyond	Sticky, torn dough, loss of elasticity

Windowpane test (or membrane test): take a small piece of dough and stretch it gently between your fingers. If the dough forms a thin, translucent membrane without tearing, kneading is complete.

Consequences of over-kneading:

Breakdown of the gluten network.

Sticky dough that is impossible to shape.

Reduced volume after baking.

Dull crust and dense crumb.

Consequences of under-kneading:

Dough tears during shaping.

Irregular and coarse crumb structure.

Insufficient volume.

Mixers and Their Use

Spiral Mixer

The spiral mixer is the most common in artisan bakeries. Its spiral rotates inside a fixed or rotating bowl.

Slow speed: 40 – 60 rpm, for hydration.

Fast speed: 120 – 200 rpm, for development.

Capacity: never exceed 60 – 70% of the nominal bowl capacity to allow proper mixing.

Fork Mixer (Horizontal Mixer)

The fork mixer (or horizontal mixer) is used for firm doughs (baguettes, pizza doughs). It has two arms that knead the dough against the walls of the bowl.

Advantage: excellent gluten development for low-hydration doughs.

Disadvantage: greater heat generation (high friction).

Planetary Mixer

The planetary mixer (with whisk, dough hook, or paddle) is used for rich doughs (brioche, choux pastry) and batters.

Dough hook: for yeasted doughs.

Paddle: for creamy mixtures.

Whisk: for aerated batters.

Safety rule: always stop the mixer before inserting hands or a spatula into the bowl. Never wear jewellery or loose clothing near a running mixer.

Formula Calculations and Baker's Percentages

The Baker's Percentage System

In the baker's percentage system, flour always represents 100%. All other ingredients are expressed as a percentage of the flour weight.

Basic white bread formula:

Ingredient	Percentage
Flour	100%
Water	62%
Fresh yeast	2%
Salt	2%
Sugar	1%
Fat	1%

Calculating the quantity of an ingredient:

Ingredient weight = (Percentage × Flour weight) ÷ 100

Example: for 5 kg of flour, the amount of salt is:

(2 × 5,000) ÷ 100 = 100 g

Converting a Formula

To adapt a formula to a desired dough quantity:

108.Add all the percentages together (total percentage).

109.Divide the desired total dough weight by the total percentage to obtain the flour weight.

110.Multiply each percentage by this flour weight.

Example: total formula = 168%. Desired dough weight = 10 kg.

Flour weight = 10,000 ÷ 168 × 100 = 5,952 g

Water = 5,952 × 0.62 = 3,690 g

Salt = 5,952 × 0.02 = 119 g

Yeast = 5,952 × 0.02 = 119 g

Calculating Dough Yield

Yield is the ratio between the dough weight obtained and the total weight of ingredients. It is generally 98 – 99% due to losses (adhesion to the bowl, evaporation).

Baking weight loss: 10 – 15% for bread, 8 – 12% for pastries. This loss is due to water evaporation and sugar caramelization.

Ingredients and Their Roles

Flour

Flour is the main ingredient. Its quality depends on:

Protein content (determined by the type of wheat).

Extraction rate (percentage of milled grain).

Ash content (residual minerals).

Flour Type	Protein (%)	Use
Pastry	8 – 9	Cakes, cookies
All-purpose	10 – 11	Pie doughs, muffins
Bread (strong)	12 – 13	Everyday breads
High protein	14+	Specialty breads, bagels

Canadian standard: flours are classified according to the Food and Drug Regulations (Title 13, Part B) of the Government of Canada. Enriched white flour must contain vitamins B1, B2, B3, iron, and folic acid.

Yeast

Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) is a living micro-organism that ferments sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide (CO₂).

Fresh (compressed) yeast: 70% moisture, shelf life 2 – 3 weeks in the refrigerator.

Active dry yeast: 8% moisture, must be rehydrated in warm water (35 – 40 °C).

Instant (dry) yeast: 4% moisture, incorporated directly into the flour.

Replacement ratios:

100 g fresh yeast = 40 g active dry yeast = 33 g instant yeast.

Optimal fermentation temperature: 25 – 30 °C. Yeast is inactive below 4 °C and dies above 55 °C.

Salt

Salt (sodium chloride) plays several roles:

Strengthens the gluten network.

Controls fermentation (slows down yeast activity).

Improves flavour and crust colour.

Standard dosage: 1.8 – 2.2% of flour weight. Excess salt (over 3%) inhibits fermentation; the absence of salt produces a sticky dough and flat bread.

Sugar

Sugar (sucrose) is the food for yeast and contributes to:

Crust colouring (Maillard reaction).

Crumb tenderness (water retention).

Shelf life.

Dosage: 1 – 8% depending on the product. Above 10%, fermentation is slowed by osmotic pressure.

Fats

Fats (butter, margarine, oils):

Make the dough more tender (interfere with gluten development).

Improve flavour and texture.

Extend freshness.

Dosage: 1 – 3% for everyday breads, 20 – 30% for brioches.

Fermentation Stages

Bulk Fermentation (First Proof)

Bulk fermentation is the first rest period after kneading. It lasts 60 to 120 minutes at room temperature (24 – 27 °C).

Objectives:

Production of CO₂ for volume development.

Flavour development.

Gluten relaxation.

The fold (or turn): after 30 – 45 minutes, the dough is folded over itself to redistribute the yeast, strengthen the gluten, and release accumulated CO₂.

Final Proof

Final proof is the fermentation after shaping. It generally takes place at 25 – 28 °C with a relative humidity of 75 – 85% to prevent crust formation.

Proof test: gently press the dough with a finger. If the indentation returns slowly and completely, the proof is complete. If it springs back immediately, the proof is insufficient. If the indentation remains, the proof is excessive.

Controlled Fermentation (Cold Retardation)

Slow cold fermentation (4 – 8 °C) allows you to:

Develop more complex flavours.

Plan production over several days.

Improve dough handling.

Maximum duration: 48 – 72 hours for bread doughs, 24 hours for rich doughs (brioche).

Common Dough Defects and Their Causes

Observed Defect	Probable Cause
Sticky dough	Excessive hydration, under-kneading, weak flour
Dough tears during shaping	Under-kneading, insufficient hydration, dough too cold
Dough does not rise	Inactive yeast, water too hot, excess salt
Dough rises too quickly	Temperature too high, excess yeast, insufficient salt
Pale crust after baking	Insufficient sugar, excessive fermentation, oven too cool
Dense and compact crumb	Under-kneading, insufficient proof, low hydration
Irregular crumb structure	Excessive kneading, proof too long, rough shaping

Standards and Safety in the Bakery

Canadian Electrical Code, Part I

Electrical equipment (mixers, ovens, proofing cabinets) must be installed in accordance with the Canadian Electrical Code, Part I (CE Code) (C22.1). Relevant rules include:

Rule 8-200: general requirements for electrical installations in commercial buildings.

Rule 26-700: installation of motors and motor controls.

Rule 28-100: protection of circuits and equipment.

Exam point: all fixed equipment must be connected to a dedicated grounded circuit. Mixers must be equipped with an accessible emergency stop device.

CSA B149.1 (Natural Gas and Propane Installation Code)

Gas ovens must be installed and maintained according to CSA B149.1 (Natural Gas and Propane Installation Code). Key requirements:

Adequate room ventilation (combustion air supply).

Carbon monoxide detectors in production areas.

Accessible manual shut-off valves near each appliance.

Food and Drug Regulations (Canada)

The Food and Drug Regulations (Title 13, Part B) govern food composition, including enriched flour and additives. Bakers must:

Use ingredients that comply with composition standards.

Respect labelling requirements (ingredient list, allergens).

Maintain traceability records.

Good Hygiene Practices (Health Canada)

Good hygiene practices (GHP) require:

Frequent and thorough hand washing.

Wearing clean work clothing and head coverings.

Cleaning and sanitizing surfaces and equipment after each use.

Temperature monitoring of proofing cabinets and refrigerators.

Pitfalls to Avoid

201.Confusing hydration with total percentage: hydration is calculated only relative to flour, never relative to the total dough weight.

202.Forgetting the friction temperature: in the water temperature calculation, friction is often neglected, resulting in dough that is too warm.

203.Using water that is too hot for the yeast: above 40 °C, yeast is damaged; above 55 °C, it dies.

204.Adding salt at the same time as the yeast: salt inhibits yeast. It should be added at the end of kneading or kept separate in the bowl.

205.Over-kneading a rich dough: rich doughs (brioche) develop faster; excessive kneading makes them sticky and greasy.

206.Ignoring the windowpane test: it is the only reliable way to determine the end of kneading, especially for high-hydration doughs.

207.Confusing active dry yeast and instant yeast: active dry yeast must be rehydrated; instant yeast is incorporated directly into the flour.

208.Neglecting dough temperature at the end of kneading: dough at 30 °C will ferment too quickly and produce bread with a coarse crumb and sour taste.

209.Forgetting baking weight loss: plan for 10 – 15% loss to correctly size portions.

210.Not respecting electrical and gas standards: installations that do not comply with the Canadian Electrical Code and CSA B149.1 are dangerous and illegal.

Summary

Gluten is formed by gliadin (extensibility) and glutenin (elasticity). Its development depends on hydration, kneading, and rest.

Hydration is calculated as a percentage of flour weight. It ranges from 50% (firm doughs) to 85% (ciabatta).

Mixing water temperature is calculated from the base temperature, subtracting the flour, room, friction, and previous dough temperatures.

Mixing methods include the direct method, poolish, fermented dough, and natural sourdough. Each influences flavour, shelf life, and texture.

Kneading has four stages: hydration, development, finish, over-kneading. The windowpane test is the criterion for the end of kneading.

Baker's percentages are based on flour = 100%. Formula conversion is done by calculating the total percentage.

Fermentation includes bulk fermentation and final proof. Slow cold fermentation improves flavour and planning.

Applicable Canadian standards are the Canadian Electrical Code (Part I), CSA B149.1 for gas, and the Food and Drug Regulations for composition and labelling.

Common defects (sticky dough, dense crumb, pale crust) are generally due to errors in dosage, temperature, or kneading.

Self-Assessment Questions

224.Calculate the hydration of a dough containing 2,400 g of flour and 1,560 g of water.

225.A formula indicates 2% salt and 1.5% yeast for 8 kg of flour. What are the weights of salt and yeast?

226.What is the water temperature if the base temperature is 58 °C, flour at 18 °C, room at 21 °C, friction at 5 °C, and previous dough at 23 °C?

227.Name three possible causes of a dough that does not rise.

228.What is the difference between active dry yeast and instant yeast?

229.What is the role of salt in bread dough?

230.What are the four stages of kneading and how do you recognize the end of stage 3?

231.Which Canadian standard governs the installation of gas ovens in a bakery?

Answers: 1) 65%; 2) salt = 160 g, yeast = 120 g; 3) (58 × 4) − (18 + 21 + 5 + 23) = 232 − 67 = 165 °C — unrealistic value, indicating a base error; 4) inactive yeast, water too hot, excess salt, temperature too low; 5) active dry must be rehydrated, instant is incorporated directly; 6) strengthens gluten, controls fermentation, improves flavour; 7) hydration, development, finish, over-kneading — the windowpane test; 8) CSA B149.1.

Dough Preparation and Mixing